Contents 

1. Introduction to Biological Molecules

1. Introduction  

2. Biological Molecules and the Cell     

3. Complex Biomolecules

4. Chemical Composition of Man     

5. The Cell

6. Cell Organelles     

7. Hierarchy in Cell Structures    

8. Biochemistry  

9. Optical Isomers

10. Chirality and Optical Activity 

11. Asymmetric Carbon Atom or Chiral Carbon    

12. Configuration of Chiral Molecules    

13. Functions of Bonds 

14. Interactions between Biomolecules and Stereospecific   

15. Types of Bonds in Biomolecules 

16. Hydrophobic or Nonpolar Interactions     

2. Chiral Interaction, pH, pK and Buffers

1. Acidity and Alkalinity    

2. Concept of Acid and Base  

3. Concept of PH 

4. Ionic Product of Water    

5. Weak Acids and Bases have Characteristic Dissociation Constants     

6. Strong and Weak Acids     

7. Titration of a Weak Acid by a Strong Base   

8. Buffers 

9. Mechanism of Buffer Action

10. Buffering Capacity 

11. Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation 

12. Buffering against pH Changes in Biological Systems (Biological Buffer Systems) 

13. Water: Its Effect on Dissolved Biomolecules

14. Physical Properties of Water   

15. Weak Interactions in Aqueous Solutions     

16. Determining pKa (Inflection Point) Values  

17. Osmosis

18. Isotonic Solutions 

19. Properties of Water 

3. Physical Foundations of Biotechnology System

1. Introduction  

2. Metabolism    

3. Physical Foundations

4. First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy is conserved  

5. Second Law of Thermodynamics    

6. Free Energy   

7. Enzymes Promote Chemical Reactions 

4. Carbohydrates 

1. Introduction  

2. Definition of Carbohydrates     

3. Source of Carbohydrates   

4. Nomenclature  

5. Classification of Carbohydrates 

6. Functions of Carbohydrates

7. Reactions of Monosaccharides (Glucose)

8. Synthesis of Carbohydrates

9. Fischer Projection and Perspective Formulas 

10. D-Glyceraldehyde as a Reference Compound   

11. Configuration of D(+) Glucose  

12. Cyclic Structure of Glucose (Ring Formation)     

13. Some Common Monosaccharides    

14. Disaccharides

15. Polysaccharides (Glycans) 

5. Lipids

1. Introduction  

2. Functions of Lipids 

3. Lipids Superior to Carbohydrates as Source of Energy

4. Classification of Lipids  

5. Fatty Acids   

6. Steroids

7. Lipids as Signals, Cofactors and Pigments

6. Protein 

1. Amino Acids   

2. Nature of Amino Acids     

3. Structure of Amino Acids  

4. Properties of Amino Acids 

5. Peptide Bond  

6. Primary Structure   

7. Forces Stabilizing Secondary Structure

8. Quaternary Structure      

7. Enzymes 

1. Enzymes 

2. Transition State Hypothesis     

3. Allosteric Enzymes  

4. Enzyme Inhibition   

5. Classification

6. Commission’s System of Classification of Enzymes  

7. Six Main Classes of Enzymes      

8. Vitamins

1. Introduction  

2. Role of Cofactors in Enzyme Catalysis 

3. Coenzymes     

4. Classification of Vitamins

5. Water Soluble Vitamins (Vitamins with Coenzyme Function)      

9. Nucleic Acids 

1. Nucleotides and Nucleosides     

2. Purines and Pyrimidines   

3. The Ribonucleotide Units of RNAs, the 3′ 5′ Phosphodiester Bonds    

4. DNA Sequence  

5. Structure of Nucleic Acids

6. A Form of DNA 

7. The B and Z Forms of DNA  

8. Forces Stabilizing Nucleic Acid Structure