Contents

1. Historical Perspective

1. Introduction

2. Origin of Life

3. Abiotic Production of Biomolecules

4. Cellular and Chemical Foundation of Life

5. Biological Molecules and the Cell

6. Complex Biomolecules

7. Chemical Composition of Man

8. The Cell

9. Cell Organelles

10. Hierarchy in Cell Structures

11. Biochemistry

12. Isomerism

12.1 Structural Isomerism

12.2 Stereo Isomerism

2. Water

1. Acidity and Alkalinity

2. Concept of Acid and Base

3. Concept of pH

4. Ionic Product of Water

5. Dissociation Constants

6. Strong and Weak Acids

7. Titration of a Weak Acid by a Strong Base

8. Buffers

8.1 Mechanism of Buffer Action

8.2  Buffering Capacity

9. Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation

10. Biological Buffer Systems

10.1 The Phosphate Buffer System

10.2 The Bicarbonate Buffer System

10.3 The Protein Buffer System

10.4 The Amino Acids Buffer System

10.5 The Haemoglobin Buffer System

11. Water - Effect on Dissolved Biomolecules

12. Weak Interactions in Aqueous Solutions

12.1 Hydrogen Bonding between Water Molecules

12.2 Water Forms Hydrogen Bonds with Solutes

12.3 Water Interacts Electrostatically with Charged Solutes

12.4 Interaction between Water and Non-polar Gases

12.5 van der Waals Interactions

12.6 Role of Non-covalent Interactions

13. Functions of Bonds

14. Interactions between Biomolecules and Stereospecificity

15. Types of Bonds in Biomolecules

16. Hydrophobic or Non-polar Interactions

17. Determining pKa (Inflection Point) Values

18. Osmosis

19. Isotonic Solutions

19.1 Properties of Water

19.2 Water Metabolism

19.3 Sources of Water

19.4 Water Loss

19.5 Physiological Functions of Water

19.6 Regulation of Water Metabolism

3. Carbohydrates

1. Introduction

2. Definition

3. Sources

4. Nomenclature

5. Classification

6. Functions

7. Reactions of Monosaccharides (Glucose)

7.1 Oxidation Reaction of Glucose

7.2 Action of Alkali

7.3 Reduction Reaction

7.4 Osazone formation

7.5 Ester Formation (Acetylation)

7.6 Fermentation

7.7 Dehydration (Action of acids)

7.8 Formation of glycosides

8. Synthesis

8.1 Kilani - Fischer synthesis

8.2 Ruff Degradation

9. Fischer Projection and Perspective Formulas

10. D-Glyceraldehyde - Reference Compound

10.1 Relative Configuration

10.2 Absolute Configuration

11. Configuration of D(+) Glucose

12. Cyclic Structure of Glucose (Ring Formation)

13. Some Common Monosaccharides

14. Disaccharides

14.1 Types of Disaccharides

14.2 Some Common Disaccharides

15. Polysaccharides (Glycans)

15.1 Homopolysaccharides

15.2 Heteropolysaccharides

4. Lipid

1. Introduction

2. Functions

3. Lipids Superior to Carbohydrates

4. Classification

4.1 Simple Lipids

4.2 Compound or Complex Lipids

4.3 Derived Lipids

5. Fatty Acids

6. Steroids

7.  Lipids as Signals, Cofactors and Pigments

7.1 Phosphatidylinositols and Sphingosine Derivatives Act as Intracelluar Signals

7.2 Eicosanoids Carry Messages to Nearby Cells

7.3 Steroid Hormones Carry Messages between Tissues

7.4 Vitamins A and D are Hormone Precursors

7.5 Vitamins E and K and the Lipid Quinones as Cofactors